Role Of The Forestry Department In Malaysia Environmental Sciences Essay

2.1 IntroductionMalaysia is a tropical state which consists of three parts: Peninsular Malaysia and the two Borneo provinces of Sabah and Sarawak. Harmonizing to Forest Statistic Information for the Year 2009 from Official Website Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia, the forested country in Peninsular Malaysia is 5.89 million hectares from overall Peninsular Malaysia Area which is 13.18 million hectares. McMorrow & A ; Talip ( 2001: 217, mentioning Wood 1990 ) have pointed out that, based on its public presentation up till the terminal of the 1980s ; Malaysia is one of the 14 major states with over 250,000 hectares deforested yearly. They added that by the late 1980s half of the forest country in Peninsular Malaysia and a fifth in Borneo had gone. A assortment of factors contribute to this province of personal businesss. When deforestation and forest debasement became critical issues, switching cultivation was singled out by the authoritiess, and peculiarly by the Sarawak authorities, as the chief cause of forest loss. Yet, it has since been established that forest debasement due to switching agriculturists is ‘minor ‘ ( Cramb 1989 ; Jomo et.al. 2004 ; Nicholas 2003 ) . The major causes of the diminution in forest country and quality include commercial logging, agricultural development, dikes and relocation. To look profoundly into the affair of the function of authorization from land office and forest section to forestall illegal business in the wood, the writer will give some definitions about forest, illegal wood activities which include illegal business of forestlands, illegal logging, etc. The Torahs such as National Land Code1965 and National Forestry Act 1984 that involve illegal business in wood have to be defined. Forest direction or sustainable forest direction besides has to be defined to happen out overview of forest jurisprudence enforcement and system monitoring in Malaysia. Since the respondents of survey are governments from land office and forestry section, therefore the maps, functions or duties besides need to be defined.2.2 Definition2.2.1 ForestHarmonizing to Oxford Advanced Learner ‘s Dictionary, wood is a big country of land that is thickly covered with trees. While in Cambridge Advance Learner ‘s Dictionary, wood is defined as a big country of land cov ered with trees and workss, normally larger than a wood, or the trees and workss themselves. Forest is a debatable and intercrossed class. As defined in FRA2000, it is a combination of a land-cover category and a land-use category: it relates non merely to the presence of trees of over 5m and 10 % canopy screen, but besides to the absence of other land utilizations such as agribusiness. It includes †areas usually forming portion of the forest country which are temporarily unstocked but which are expected to return to forest † ( FAO Forestry Department, 1998, p. 3 ) . Further complications stem from alterations in minimal size of country included ( 0.5 hour angle in FRA2000, compared with 100 hour angles in FRA1990 ) . Rubber plantations were included as plantations in FRA2000 but non in FRA1990. And while a unvarying definition was employed in FRA2000, it has non become a planetary criterion: treatment continued thenceforth ( FAO, 2002 ) , and a different 1 has been agreed for describing on the Kyoto Protocol ( UNFCCC, 2002 ) . Even if a individual definition is agreed, as in FRA2000, jobs remain and so may go even more insidious because they are less obvious. At the state degree, informations are collected harmonizing to national definitions, and have to be adjusted to the international one Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) , Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 showed that woods cover 31 per centum of entire land country. Degree centigrades: Documents and SettingsTHAMDesktopuntitled.JPG The universe ‘s entire forest country is merely over 4 billion hectares, which corresponds to an norm of 0.6 hour angles per capita. The five most forest-rich states ( the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China ) history for more than half of the entire forest country. Ten states or countries have no wood at all and an extra 54 have forest on less than 10 per centum of their entire land country. Carol Yong ( 2006 ) revealed that the official definition of a wood used in Malaysia differs from the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) definition, which excludes countries under agricultural harvests ( e.g. oil thenar ) . In Malaysia, nevertheless, the countries under oil thenar, gum elastic and tree harvests are often regarded as wood. The inquiry of the definition of woods is peculiarly important in the Malayan context where the Malayan woods are quickly vanishing and, conversely, â€Å" forest † plantations countries are spread outing. Malayan Timber Council ( 2008 ) draws our attending that in the twelvemonth 2006, Malaysia has 32.95 million hectares of land country, of which 24.60 million hectares or 74.7 per centum of entire land country are classified as entire country under tree screen. Of these, 18.5 million hectares are forested country and 6.25 million hectares are other tree bulls. Of the entire country under tree screen, 8.96 million hectares ( 36.42 per cent ) are found in Sarawak, 11.23 million hectares ( 45.65 per cent ) are found in Peninsular Malaysia and 4.41 million hectares ( 17.93 per cent ) in Sabah. Sabah claims it has the least country under tree screen. S. Mather ( 1990 ) in Zalinda Binti Muhammad ( 2003 ) and Norisah Binti Kasim ( 2006 ) stated that wood is one spectrum which has natural elements like merchandise of the forest, vegetations and zoologies, etc. Area of all the forest that has been identified at the center of decennary 1980 is more than 4000 million hectare or 31 per centum of surface of the Earth. Harmonizing to S.M. Mohd Idris who is the manager of Sahabat Alam Malaysia ( SAM ) or Friends of the Earth Malaysia ( 1987 ) in Norisah Binti Kasim ( 2006 ) , he stated that â€Å" †¦ forests offer protective functions against environmental alterations. The complex function played by wood in the heat and H2O balance of the Earth is undeniable. At the local degree, the forest screen breaks the impact of heavy rainstorms on the dirt, reduces and slows down surface run off, and minimizes dirt eroding every bit good as state of affairs of the drainage systems. Flash inundations and drawn-out inundations in many countries of the topical universe are progressively attributable to extended clearance of forested countries. †2.2.2 Improper OccupationHarmonizing to Oxford Advanced Learner ‘s Dictionary, the significance of business is the act of life in or utilizing a edifice, room, piece of land, etc. Meanwhile the significance of improper is non allowed by the jurisprudence or equivalent word with illegal. Therefore improper business can be defined as the act of life in or utilizing a edifice, room, piece of land, etc which is against the jurisprudence.2.2.3 Illegal Forest Activitiesâ€Å" Illegal wood activities † is a wide term that includes illegal logging ; it is used to mention to activities broader than merely harvest home, which is, conveyance, processing and trade ( Smith, 2002 ) . Brack and Hayman ( 2001 ) besides reference that illegalities may besides happen â€Å" during conveyance, including illegal processing and export, misdeclaration to imposts, and turning away of revenue enhancements and other monies. † Illegal forest activities include all illegal Acts of the Apostless related to forest ecosystems, forest industries, and lumber and non-timber wood merchandises. They include Acts of the Apostless related to the constitution of rights to the land and corrupt activities used to get forest grants. Illegal Acts of the Apostless include unauthorised business of public and private forestlands, logging in protected or environmentally sensitive countries, reaping protected species of trees, forest incendiarism, wildlife poaching, improper conveyance of wood and other wood merchandises, smuggling, reassign pricing and other deceitful accounting patterns, unauthorised processing of wood merchandises, misdemeanor of environmental ordinances, and bribing authorities functionaries ( Contreras-Hermosilla 2002a ) â€Å" There are many types of illegal forest patterns like public retainers may O.K. illegal contracts with private endeavor. Private commercial corporations may reap trees of species that are protected by jurisprudence from timber development. Persons and communities may come in public wood and illicitly take merchandises that are public belongings. Illegal activities do non halt at the forest. They travel down the line to operations in transit, processing and trade of wood merchandises. Persons or corporations may smuggle wood merchandises across international boundary lines or procedure natural wood stuffs without a licence. Corporations with strong international links may unnaturally blow up the monetary value of imported inputs or deflate the volume and monetary values of their exports to cut down their revenue enhancement liability and to ease the illegal transportation of capital abroad † ( FAO 2001 ) . Contreras-Hermosilla nowadayss illustrations of illegal activities in the forestry sector, grouped into six classs: illegal business of forestlands ; illegal logging ; incendiarism ; illegal lumber trade and conveyance, and timber smuggling ; transfer pricing and other illegal accounting patterns ; and illegal wood processing that shown in Table 1 below.[ 1 ]Illegal business of forestlandsaˆ?Invasion of public forested lands by either rural households, communities or private corporations to change over them to agriculture or cowss ranching aˆ? Practice of slash-and-burn agribusiness on invaded lands aˆ?Landless provincials illicitly busying forested countries to coerce authoritiess to allow land ownership rights to them and these authoritiess purchasing lands from provincials.Illegal loggingaˆ? Logging protected species aˆ? Duplication of droping licences aˆ? Girdling or ring-barking, to kill trees so that they can be lawfully logged aˆ? Contracting with local enterprisers to purchase logs from protected countries aˆ? Loging in protected countries aˆ? Logging outside grant boundaries aˆ? Loging in prohibited countries such as steep inclines, riversides and H2O catchments aˆ? Removing under-/over-sized trees from public woods aˆ? Extracting more timber than authorised aˆ? Reporting high volume extracted in forest grants to dissemble the fact that portion of the volume declared is extracted from non-authorized boundaries aˆ? Loging without mandate aˆ? Obtaining logging grants through payoffs.Forests incendiarismaˆ?Setting forests on fire to change over them to commercial utilizations.Illegal timber conveyance, trade and lumber smugglingaˆ? Transporting logs without mandate aˆ? Transporting illicitly harvested lumber aˆ? Smuggling lumber aˆ? Exporting and importing tree species banned under international jurisprudence, such as Citations aˆ? Exporting and importing lumber in dispute of national prohibitions.Transportation pricing and other illegal accounting patternsaˆ? Declaring lower values and volumes exported aˆ? Declaring purchase monetary values higher than the predominating market monetary values as equipment or services from related companies aˆ? Manipulating debt hard currency flows to reassign money to a subordinate or parent company, such as blow uping debt refund to avoid revenue enhancements on net incomes aˆ?Under-grading, under-valuing, under-measuring and misclassification of species exported or for the local market.Illegal forest processingaˆ? Operating without a processing licence aˆ? Ignoring environmental and societal and labour Torahs and ordinances aˆ? Using illicitly obtained wood in industrial processing.Table 3: Examples of illegal patterns in the forestry sectorThe World Bank estimates that loss of gross caused by illegal wood activities throughout the universe is deserving US $ 5 billion yearly. Illegal wood activities occur in tropical, temperate and boreal woods.[ 2 ] Illegal forest activities abound in many states, for illustration: * In Indonesia, every bit much as 50 million three-dimensional metres of lumber are estimated to be illicitly cut-down each twelvemonth. * At least one-fifth of Russia ‘s one-year lumber crop is taken illicitly, and illegal harvest home may account for every bit much as 50 per centum of the sum in East Asia. * In Cambodia in 1997, the volume of illicitly harvested logs was ten times that of the legal crop. * In Cameroon and Mozambique about half of the entire one-year lumber crop is illegal. * In Brazil, an estimated 80 per centum of lumber extracted each twelvemonth in the Amazon is removed illicitly.2.2.4 Illegal LoggingIllegal logging has no individual definition. It is non a legal term derived from pacts, legislative acts, or tribunal sentiments. Neither is it a proficient term that professionals use in a consistent manner. In a general sense, â€Å" illegal logging takes topographic point when lumber is harvested, transported, bought or sold in misdemeanor of national Torahs † ( Black and Hayman 2001 ) . This wide definition includes about any illegal act that may happen between the turning of the tree and the reaching of the forest-based merchandise in the custodies of the consumer † ( Rosenbaum 2003 ) There are normally no expressed definitions for illegal logging. In pattern, the definition can be derived from the legal misdemeanors that are reported on in the national statistics refering illegal logging. This does non needfully intend that other types of misdemeanors would be ignored ; they may merely be recorded under different headers. In wide footings, the assorted legal misdemeanors associated with illegal logging can be divided into eight groups: ( I ) larceny, ( two ) unauthorized harvest home, ( three ) non-compliance with ordinances related to timber harvest home, ( four ) non-compliance with the process of timber sales/concession award, ( V ) use of timber informations, ( six ) equivocation of revenue enhancements and fees, ( seven ) non-compliance with ordinances refering conveyance or export of lumber, and ( seven ) disobedience with labour Torahs Typically, the statistics on illegal logging in the states involved in the survey refer to misdemeanors which involve phys ical remotion of trees i.e. larceny, unauthorised harvest home and disobedience with cutting ordinances. Corruptness in connexion with lumber harvest home is non recorded under illegal logging unless it involves physical remotion of trees. All types of misdemeanors in the above list except larceny could affect corruptness. Based on interviews with assorted stakeholders in the states involved in the survey, disobedience with labour Torahs is perceived to be merely weakly linked to illegal logging. Sector-specific records are non maintained and forest disposal is non involved in enforcement activities. The illegal logging phenomenon is neither new nor uncontested by the authorities. It started in the old ages prior to the societal economic reform ; it reached the extremum in 1997 and continues to day of the month. From this point of position, the â€Å" unwellness † has non infected merely one sector but has extended its roots into other sectors of the economic system, and the â€Å" remedy † for this â€Å" unwellness † requires the intersectoral cooperation of public disposal, non denying here the interested community and the work of the economic and environmental NGOs.2.3 Forest ManagementForest direction is the subdivision of forestry concerned with the overall administrative, economic, legal, and societal facets and with the basically scientific and proficient facets, particularly silviculture, protection, and forest ordinance. This includes direction for aesthetics, fish, diversion, urban values, H2O, wilderness, wildlife, wood merchandises, forest famili al resources and other forest resource values. Management can be based on preservation, economic sciences, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, seting and replanting of assorted species, cutting roads and tracts through woods, and forestalling fire. Formal forest direction in Malaysia was introduced in 1901 by the British colonial disposal with the creative activity of a wood section. The section was involved in forestry vegetation, silvicultural pattern, policy preparation and forest saving. Forestry policies formulated by the British in the 1920s and 1930s were consolidated as the National Forestry Policy ( NFP ) in 1978 to guarantee orderly execution of forest direction, preservation and development across all provinces. This is because land and forest in Malaysia are purely province affairs. The ad hoc forest direction policy practiced by each province makes monitoring and control of forest resources at the federal degree hard. The National Forestry Act ( NFA ) of 1984 provides for orderly harvest home, reclamation and preservation of trees at the sustainable output degree.2.3.1 Significance of Forest Management2.3.2 Sustainable Forest ManagementSustainable Forest Management ( SFM ) is the manner of direction in which growin g exceeds timber crop, now besides encompasses economic sciences, environmental and societal qualities that contribute to the sustainability of forest dependent communities and ecosystems every bit good as the forest itself. Malaysia has a program more environmentally-friendly and responsible concern patterns. This will assist cut down runing costs in the long-term and is a wise investing in the hereafter, safeguarding the natural resources depending on corporations and communities. For illustration, local corporations in wood industries are fall ining WWF ‘s Global Forest and Trade Network. They are aiming European and US markets, where consumers are progressively demanding wood merchandises from sustainably managed woods ( WWF-Malaysia, 2008 ) . Harmonizing to International Tropical Timber Organization ( ITTO, 1992 ) , sustainable wood direction is the procedure of pull offing woods to accomplish one or more clearly specified aims of direction with respect to the production of a uninterrupted flow of coveted wood merchandises and services, without undue decrease of its built-in value and future productiveness, and without undue unwanted effects on the physical and societal environments. FAO ( 1993 ) defines it as one which ensures that the values derived from forest meet present twenty-four hours demands while at the same clip guaranting their continued handiness and use to long-run development demands. Sustainable Forest Management ( SFM ) is impossible to accomplish if a state does non hold a direction system. In this respect, the usage of more systematic attack in pull offing the woods in Peninsular Malaysia began in 1901 when the first forest officer was appointed ( Ismail, 1996 ) . Since so, forest direction patterns in Peninsular Malaysia had been subjected to constant reappraisal and polish so as to guarantee their suitableness in accomplishing forest reclamation and sustained output. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 study has provides a comprehensive overview of the consequences of FRA 2010 grouped harmonizing to seven subjects, covering cardinal facets of sustainable forest direction: aˆ? Extent of forest resources aˆ? Forest biological diverseness aˆ? Forest wellness and verve aˆ? Protective maps of forest resources aˆ? Productive maps of forest resources aˆ? Socio-economic maps of woods aˆ? Legal, policy and institutional model2.4 Legal FrameworkThe forestry policies are implemented chiefly through the commissariats in the forest Torahs enacted for the three parts: National Forestry Act 1984 for Peninsular Malaysia, Forest Regulation 1958 for Sarawak and Forest Enactment 1968 for Sabah, and the assorted amendments by the States. The other related ordinances that affect forestry for Peninsular Malaysia include the Land Conservation Act 1960, Environmental Quality Act 1974, National Parks Act 1980, Protection of Wildlife Act 1972, National Land Code 1965, Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954, Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 and Forest Rules 1985. For Sabah, the relevant ordinances include Forest Rules 1969, Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1977, Land Ordinance 1930, Cultural Heritage ( Conservation ) 1997, Sabah Parks Enactment 1984, Biodiversity Enactment 2000, Conservation of Environment Enactment 1996, Water Resource Enactment 1998, and Environmental Quality Act 1974. Sarawak has the Natural Resources and Environment Ordinance 1997, Forest Rules 1962, Wildlife Protection Ordinance and Rules 1998, The Forests ( Planted Forest ) Rules 1997, Sarawak Biodiversity Centre Ordinance 1997, Sarawak Biodiversity ( Access, Collection & A ; Research Regulations ) 1998, Land Code 1958, Natural Resource and Environmental Ordinance, Water Ordinance 1994, Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Land Ordinance 1952, Native Code 1992, Native Code Rules 1996, and Native Custom Declaration 1996.2.4.1 The Torahs2.4.1.1 Malayan Fundamental lawForests are under the duty of the provinces as enshrined in the Malayan Federal Constitution. Under Article 74 ( 12 ) of the Federal Constitution, land and forest ownership and direction is the duty of the State authoritiess. Each province has control over how they use and protect their forest resources so come up with their ain policies. For illustration, Sarawak governs under the Sarawak Forest Regulation of 1954 while S abah operates under the Sabah Forest Enactment of 1968. The executive authorization of the Federal Government merely extends to the proviso of advice and proficient aid to the States includes aid with forest direction, preparation of forces, behavior of research and presentation or experimental Stationss unless the State agrees to depute some of their authorization to the Federal Government. However, the Federal Government is responsible for trade policies, import and export controls and international cooperation among others. Under the proviso of Article 74 Clause ( 2 ) of the Malayan Constitution, land and forest are defined as province affairs and are therefore within the legal power of the several State Governments. Clause ( 3 ) of Article 76 of the Malayan Constitution ensures that all Acts related to land and forest shall non come into force in a State unless it has been adopted by a jurisprudence made by the legislative assembly of the State. As such each State is empowered to ordain Torahs on forestry and to explicate wood policy independently. The executive authorization of the Federal Government merely extends to the proviso of advice and proficient aid to the States, preparation and the behavior of research, and in the care of experimental and presentation Stationss.2.4.1.2 National Forest PolicyUpon independency from the British in 1957, the Colonial Office returned the woods to Malaysia. In 1958, with commissariats under the Federal Constitution, the National Land Council ( NLC ) was formed â €˜for organizing State and Federal policies and aims covering land usage, excavation, forestry and agribusiness to explicate from clip to clip in audience with the Federal Government, the State Governments and the National Finance Council a national policy for the publicity and control of the use of land throughout the Federation the development of natural resources was hence sensed piecemeal, instead than holistically ‘ ( Kathirithamby-Wells 2005: 267 ) . The first measure to protecting the forest resources in Malaysia was the formation of the National Forestry Council ( NFC ) in December 1971. The end of the NFC was to make co-ordinated programs and efficaciously pull off Malaysians woods. The NFC is made up of the Chief Curates from all 13 provinces. Subsequently, this organic structure created the basis for the formation of the National Forestry Policy ( NFP ) . This policy was officially adopted by the Malayan authorities in 1978. This policy recognizes the importance of woods for the public assistance of both single communities and that state itself. Malaysia has dedicated itself to sustainable timber output patterns. The National Forest Policy for Peninsular Malaysia of 1978 was revised in 1992 to integrate several new elements, one of which is on the importance of forest jurisprudence enforcement. In this revised policy statements, it was emphasized that the State Governments through their several State Director Forestry must judicially implement the National Forest Act 1984 ( Revised 1993 ) to guarantee sustainable forest resource direction and preservation.2.4.1.3 National Forestry Act 1984An Act to supply for the disposal, direction and preservation of woods and forestry development within the States of Malaysia and for affiliated intents. There is the amendment to National Forestry Act 1984 in 1993 to supply for stiffer punishments for illegal logging and enlisting the Police and Armed Forces to help the Forestry Departments in transporting out enforcement to control illegal logging, lumber larceny and invasions. The cardinal step taken by the Government to forestall forest offense was by amending the National Forestry Act, 1984 to integrate new commissariats to discourage the happening of wood discourtesies. The Act was enacted to update and harmonise forest jurisprudence in the Peninsula. Prior to the Act, the assorted State authoritiess depend on the State Forest Enactment ‘s, which were formulated in 1930 ‘s, for legal guidelines on forest direction and preservation. The Act besides enables the effectual execution of the National Forestry Policy passed in 1978. It was amended in 1993 to further beef up its commissariats to control illegal invasion of woods and larceny of lumber. The Act has been adopted by all the provinces in Peninsular Malaysia. The chief aims of amending the Act are as follows: I ) To increase the punishments and fasten the processs in intensifying forest offenses two ) To reassign load of cogent evidence from the prosecuting officer to the defence in the tribunal three ) To depute power in authorship by State Director of Forestry under subdivision 88, 89, 90, 92 or 93 to any member of the armed forces non below the rank of Lance Corporal as empowered to the constabulary but shall non include the power of probe four ) To add new subdivisions 100A and 100B for wagess and protection of betrayers severally, subdivision 101A for power of tribunal to order annulment and disqualification, subdivision 110A for discourtesies committed by licensee or holder of license, and New Sixth Schedule for list of machines, equipment and conveyance † . V ) To do general amendments in the national linguistic communication text, alteration of name in the national linguistic communication text and replacement subdivisions 5, 69, 101 and 1042.4.1.4 National Land CodeHarmonizing to subdivision 425 improper business, etc. , of province Land, reserved land or excavation land National Land Code ( Act 56 of 1965 ) and ordinances, Section 425 ( 1 ) stated that any individual who, without lawful authorization – Occupies, or erects any edifice on, any State land, reserved land or excavation land or Clears, Big Dippers, digs, encloses or cultivates any such land or portion thereof ; or Cuts or removes any lumber or bring forth on or from such land, shall be guilty of an offense, and apt on strong belief to a all right non transcending ten thousand Ringgit, or imprisonment for a term non transcending one twelvemonth. ( 1A ) Any individual who abets the committee of an offense under sub-section ( 1 ) shall be guilty of an offense, and apt on strong belief to a all right non transcending ten thousand ringgit, or imprisonment for a term non transcending one twelvemonth, or to both. ( 2 ) For the intent of this subdivision, State Land shall include all land held by or on behalf of Federal or State Government a local authorization or a statutory authorization exerting power vested in it by Federal or State jurisprudence. Section 426 besides stated that improper extraction or remotion of stone stuff besides show that any individual who without lawful authorization, extracts removes, or, conveyances or permits the extraction, remotion or transit of stone stuff from any land shall be guilty of an offense, and apt on strong belief to a all right non transcending 50 thousand ringgit, or imprisonment for a term non transcending five old ages, or to both.[ 3 ] Section 426A show that any constabularies officer non below the rank of Inspector, Registrar, Land Administrator, Settlement Officer or other officer duly authorized by the State Authority ( afterlife in this portion referred to as â€Å" authorised officer † may without warrant- Arrest any individual found perpetrating or trying to perpetrate or abetting the committee of an offense under subdivision 425 or 426 Seize any vehicle, tractor, agricultural implement or other thing whatsoever which he has ground to believe was used or is being used in the committee of an offense under that subdivision Demolish, destroy or take any edifice, or take ownership in the name of the State Authority of any harvest, erected or cultivated on any land land in dispute thereof.2.4.1.5 List of improper activities under each LawMisdemeanors of the protective commissariats ( harm of wood modesty through fire, prohibited Acts of the Apostless in a wood modesty, illegal logging and remotion from other countries, cutting of undersized trees ) are punished by mulct and imprisonment in the instance of unauthorised entry for intervention with fencings or notice boards, by a all right entirely [ Idaho. Section 20 ( 1 ) ( C ) and 33 ( 1 ) ] . Assorted offenses of fraud, privacy of grounds and having forest green goods are besides punished by mulct and imprisonment ( Section 30 ) . In add-on to mulcts and imprisonment, the Forest Enactment authorizes the tribunal to order the cancellation of licenses, the payment of any fees that would hold been collectible in the instance of unaccredited Acts of the Apostless that could hold been licensed, and compensation of 10 times the value of forest green goods removed or damaged ( Enactment No. 2 of 1968, Section 34 ) . There is besides proviso for combination of certain offenses [ come ining closed country, rehearsing switching cultivation ( Section 20 ( C ) ] , capable to the payment of an sum based on the mulct provided for the offense ( Section 35 ) . The Forest Enactment contains a figure of givens that shift the load of cogent evidence to the suspect charged with a forest offense. In prosecutions against licensees, if there is an extraction path from an country of alleged illegal remotion to the accredited country, or if the volume of lumber claimed to be covered by a license exceeds the production of the accredited country, the elements of illegal remotion or of ownership of green goods in regard of which an offense has been committed are presumed. In any instance in which the being of a license, payment of any royalty, ownership of farm animal or forest green goods, or the birthplace of wood green goods is in issue, the load of cogent evidence prevarications on the accused ( id. Section 38 ) .2.4.2 The Agencies Involved2.4.2.1 Forestry Department Peninsular MalaysiaForestry Department Peninsular Malaysia ( JPSM ) is one of the sections under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia and consists of Peninsular Malaysia Forestry Headquarters, 11 State Forestry Department and 33 District Forest Office in all of the Peninsular Malaysia. The section is headed by Director General of Forestry and assisted by two Deputy Director of Forestry. At the terminal of 2009, the figure of employees is about 5.432 people. Forestry Department is responsible for the direction, planning, protection and development of the Permanent Forest Reserve ( HSK ) in conformity with the National Forestry Policy ( NDP ) 1992 and National Forestry Act ( APN ) 1984. Peninsular Malaysia Forestry Headquarters responsible for the preparation of forestry policies, supplying advice and proficient services to State Forestry Department in the planning, direction and development of woods, forest harvest home and wood-based industries, forest operations research, and preparation and human resource development. At the Head Office of Forestry, there are two Deputy Director General who are Deputy Director ( Policy and Planning ) and Deputy Director ( Operations and Technical ) is responsible for each of the six divisions. Meanwhile, there is one Unit of measurement and another one division is straight responsible to the Director General of Forestry. Sector Policy and Planning Deputy Director General of Forestry ( Policy and Planning ) in charge of planning and economic wood, forest resource direction, silviculture and preservation of forest biological science, wood development and forest eco-park, province Parkss, international personal businesss and forestry plantation and forest protection. Sector Operations and Technical Deputy Director General of Forestry ( Operations and Technical ) is responsible for the personal businesss of disposal and finance, technology, forestry, lumber industry, proficient and enforcement of the forest, forestry preparation and human capital development and information engineering systems development.2.4.2.2 State Forestry Department Negeri SembilanState Forestry Department is responsible for the disposal and control of forest development, forest gross aggregation and development of province forest resources. The section besides plans and coordinates the development of wood-based industries. State F orestry Department is divided into Forest Operations Division and Forest Development and supported by the Office of the Forest District. Forest Operations Division is responsible for disposal, forest jurisprudence enforcement, gross aggregation, and co-ordinates and liaises with the Head Office of Forestry, other province sections, statutory organic structures and bureaus. Meanwhile Forestry Development Division is responsible for planning, implementing and supervising the activities of direction and development of woods, including biodiversity preservation, ecotourism development and rehabilitation of forest countries and the readying and execution of the State Forest Management Plan. Forest Office District is responsible for disposal, control of forest development, forest gross aggregation and enforcement of forest Torahs. This office is besides responsible for implementing the activities of direction and development of woods, including forest direction of forest eco-park and province Parkss. The operation in the wood of State Forestry Department can split into two parts which are jurisprudence enforcement and forest harvest home. In jurisprudence enforcement portion, enforcement activities undertaken in all countries affecting the Permanent Forest Reserve, the State Land Reserve and alienated land. In peculiar, this activity is to implement the National Forestry Act 1984 and amendments, the Rules of the Forest Enactment of the Wood Industry and the Rules of the Wood Industry. Forestry Department is besides taking a precautional attack to learning from clip to clip through Development Program and Publicity through seminars, classs and official accounts and besides in the field, particularly to operators / lumbermans to follow with ordinances and Torahs in force. The consequences of the National Forestry Council-19 in 2005 had decided that all forest discourtesies affecting Section 15 and Section 40 of the APN 1984 ( Amendment 1993 ) ( instances of illegal logging ) are no longer allowed to be compounded, but proceed with prosecution in tribunal proceedings. In add-on, Section 86 and Section 107 is besides the subdivisions contained in the bing APN 1984 ( Rev. 1993 ) for instances of mistakes that can non be compounded even though it is the first clip. All of these discourtesies shall be referred to the State Legal Advisor for more sentiments and execution of appropriate direction. Reaping of woods in was conducted in conformity with demands of the standard standards, indexs and activities set by the ITTO Year 2000 Objective and the MS ISO 9000 for the development of Forest Land in the Permanent Reserved Forests are capable to an one-year allowable cut an country of 2.460 hectares. Forest Harvesting is the chief standards to pull off and keep woods in line with the rules of Sustainable Forest Management for the benefit of societal, economic, cultural and environmental. The harvest home of woods is taking activity and forest green goods that contributes to the development and socio-economic development. Reaping the Permanent Forest Reserve is an activity that must be implemented harmonizing to the best forest direction systems to cut and take plenty wood to size and adulthood of the demands of wood-based industries. Harvesting is carried out selective cutting system with adequate left base at the following unit of ammunition in line with the economic development of forest resources to guarantee sustainability and environmental stableness.2.4.2.3 Land Office and DistrictAmong the maps, functions and duties of Land Office and District are supplying services in direction, finance, services, licensing, records direction and security functionaries with the purpose of easing travel and fiscal disposal and program, manage, co-ordinate and implement policies for socio-economic development of local communities particularly in rural countries to accomplish th e NEP by supplying basic installations needed. Land office and District responsible to make an efficient land disposal system to guarantee efficient and effectual mode all affairs ( traffics ) are concerned with the land and guarantee that all studies made by members of the populace are investigated and action taken quickly. They besides need to maximise gross aggregation and better aggregation of arrears of gross and update history records the consequences of the Land Office from clip to clip with the right and subject the returns within the specified clip. Land Office and District can be divided to three chief divisions which are Management Services Division, Land Management Division, and Development Division. Under the Land Management Division, there are Land Development Unit, Land Disposal Unit, Land Registration Unit & A ; Heritage, Revenue Unit, and Enforcement Unit. The maps of Enforcement Unit are place the location of jobs and ailments, monitoring and carry oning probes, behavior patrols every hebdomad two times and guarantee that all activities that performed has valid license. Among the functions and duties of Enforcement Unit are look into the land in relation to the application of province land, permits for prospecting, transition, impermanent housing licence applications, subdivision, subdivision, consolidation, reserve, land acquisition, implement enforcement on illegal land geographic expedition, breach of status of land, the transportation of stone stuff, carry out enforcement responsibilities, the detainment, arrogation, devastation, in line power supplied under the Section 426A National Land Code ( NLC ) , investigate studies of instances associating to set down jurisprudence ( NLC ) , regulate affairs associating to the merchandises of stone stuffs and responsible for capturing, destruction, and provide basic coverage breaches and illegal business and misdemeanor types of status harmonizing to Section 426A NLC.2.4.3 The Power or Duties of Agencies2.4.3.1 Monitoring2.4.3.2 EnforcementThe Forest Enactment empowers forest and constabularies officers to carry on hunts without warrant ( except in homes ) , seize forest green goods, and equipment and apprehension suspected wrongdoers where they are improbable to look on biddings or decline to place themselves right ( Section 36 ) . Forest officers do non hold the powers of ranking constabulary officers to attest to statements made by an accused ( californium. Malaysia Crim. Pro. Code, F, M, S. Cap. 6 ) , although some ictuss might hold the same consequence.2.4.4 The Punishments2.4.4.1 List of punishments for each improper activitySectionInformation ABOUT SectionPunishment15Take any forest green goods from a lasting reserved forest or a State land Fine non transcending[ 4 ]five hundred 1000 ringgit and to imprisonment for a term which shall non be less than one twelvemonth but shall non transcend twenty old ages.25 ( 2 )Fails to follow with a Form 2 notice Fine non transcending[ 5 ]50 thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending[ 6 ]five old ages or to both such mulct and imprisonment and if the offense is a go oning one, to a farther mulct non transcending[ 7 ]one 1000 ringgit for every twenty-four hours.32 ( 1 )Occupy or transport out any activity upon any land within a lasting reserved forest without permission Fine non transcending[ 8 ]50 thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending[ 9 ]five old ages or to both such mulct and imprisonment40 ( 1 )Remove any forest green goods without removal licence from any ( a ) anomic land ; ( B ) land held under a impermanent business licence ; ( degree Celsius ) excavation land ; or ( vitamin D ) reserved land, Fine non transcending[ 10 ]five hundred 1000 ringgit and to imprisonment for a term which shall non be less than one twelvemonth but shall non transcend twenty old ages.47 ( 1 ) & A ; ( 4 )Enter any closed wood without permission Fine non transcending[ 11 ]10s thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending three[ 12 ]old ages or to both such mulct and imprisonment.50 ( 4 )Use of forest roads without route license 13Fine non transcending ten thousand ringgit81 ( 1 )Acts prohibited in lasting reserved woods ( a ) graze cowss or license cowss to graze ; ( B ) fell, cut, ring, grade, lop or tap any tree ; or injure by fire, or otherwise, or take any tree or lumber ; ( degree Celsius ) cause any harm in droping any tree or film editing or dragging any lumber ; ( vitamin D ) hunt for, collect, capable to any fabricating procedure or take any forest green goods or minerals ; ( vitamin E ) clear or interrupt up any land for cultivation or any other intent ; ( degree Fahrenheit ) use toxicant substance, or dynamite or other explosives on rivers or lakes for the intent of fishing ; or Hunt, shoot, fish or set traps or traps ; or ( g ) trespass in any mode non in this subdivision hereinbefore prohibited Fine non transcending[ 14 ]10s thousand ringgitA Fine non transcending[ 15 ]50 thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending[ 16 ]five old ages or to both such mulct and imprisonmentAFine non transcending ten thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending three old ages or to both such mulct and imprisonment82 ( 1 )Carry any fire, or leave any fire combustion, within a lasting reserved forest Fine non transcending[ 17 ]50 thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending[ 18 ]five old ages or to both such mulct and imprisonment.Table 5: Summary of illegal business in the wood and punishment harmonizing to Act 313 National Forestry Act 1984 and National Forestry ( Amendment ) Act 1993 [ Act A864 ]The tabular array above shows that the punishments that imposed to the illegal residents or any individual who are interrupt the jurisprudence is really high and can leap to twofold, trifold and even much more higher after the amendment of National Forestry Act in 1993. For illustration, the people who are take any forest green goods from a lasting reserved forest or a State land harmonizing to subdivision 15 is all right non transcending five 100 1000 ringgit and to imprisonment for a term which shall non be less than one twelvemonth but shall non transcend twenty old ages but antecedently was 10 thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term non transcending three old ages or to both before the National Forestry ( Amendment ) Act 1993 [ Act A864 ] implemented.2.5 Analysis of Legal Framework2.5.1 FailingYearNo. Of CasesNotes1987172BEFORE Amendment to National Forestry Act 1984198813619892331990172199151219921911993149AFTER Amendment to National Forestry Act 1984199441199534199614199722199823199926200037200115200213200321Table 4: Number of Illegal Logging Cases in Peninsular Malaysia Harmonizing To Year ( 1987 – 2003 )This has shown that authorities ‘s attempt to forestall illegal forest activities in the forest particularly illegal logging in Peninsular Malaysia from acquiring worse nevertheless in fact the illegal business in the wood is still go on. Since there is stricter punishments for those illegal residents after amendment of National Forestry Act in 1993 but why illegal business still can go on even in the reserved land. This has revealed that is the failing of system monitoring and enforcement from relevant governments li ke land office and forestry section who have the power to supervise and implement against illegal residents.2.5.2 ProposalHarmonizing to newspaper â€Å" Utusan Malaysia † dated ( 15-10-2009 ) , Y.B. Tan Sri Joseph Kurup who is Deputy Minister of Natural Resources and Environment ( NRE ) said that his ministry likes to amend and streamline the commissariats of the National Forestry Act 1984 to turn to the issue of illegal logging. He besides added that they want to set up enforcement squads in the wood territory and province degrees and â€Å" winging squad † in the Forestry Department for battling illegal logging instances in add-on to placing countries with high happening of such events. That has showed that authorities wants to beef up their system of monitoring and enforcement particularly illegal logging instances. However there are still holding other illegal forestry activities happen such as illegal business of forestland, fire combustion, and so on which will give a great impact to the environment and single. Therefore there is a survey or research to supervise other illegal forestry activities and better the enforcement against the illegal residents.2.6 DrumheadFrom the survey that have been done, illegal wood activities which include illegal business, illegal logging, etc need look earnestly by the relevant governments, organisation or non-governmental organisation ( NGO ) and even the populace who are concern about the illegal business in the wood. Since these activities can do harm or destruct the habitation of biodiversity of vegetations and zoologies in the wood, therefore indispensable stairss need to transport out to protect them from being destroy or extinct. Government or related governments have done their attempt to forestall the illegal business in the wood by enforcing heavier punishments to the illegal residents by the amendment of National Forestry Act 1984 in 1993 and National Land Code ( Amendment ) act 2008. The consequence after the amendment is figure of illegal logging instances in Peninsular Malaysia bead dramatically in that period but illegal businesss in the wood still go on and seems similar addition late. Hence there is of import to analyze or reassess system monitoring and enforcement of the governments from land office and forestry section because of the impact of illegal business in the wood. In the undermentioned chapter, the instance survey will concentrate on the wood of Negeri Sembilan where illegal businesss take topographic point to happen out the causes and betterment of system monitoring if demand.

Biology Adaptation

Adaptation Definition: Adaptation is the process of how organisms develop special structures and internal processes to enable them to live in their environment. Definition: Adaptation is the process of how organisms develop special structures and internal processes to enable them to live in their environment. Organisms can be adapted in two ways: 1. Body structure (e. g. Small ears to reduce heat loss) 2. Body processes (e. g. Osmoregulation in salmon)General Biology Ii Study Guide (Online Class)There are several factors which cause adaptation to occur: Physical Factors * * * Other organisms * * * Adaptations Match the following animals to the adaptations below, and suggest why they are useful. Think about the habitat each animal lives in! * Polar Bear * Camel * Great White Shark Adaptation| Animal| How is this useful? | Thick Fur| Â  | Â  | Stream Lined Body| Â  | Â  | Fat stored in a hump| Â  | Â  | Ability to close nostrils| Â  | Â  | Fins| Â  | Â  | Ability to smell blo od| Â  | Â  | Small ears| Â  | Â  |White Fur| Â  | Â  | Gills| Â  | Â  | Large Claws| Â  | Â  | Sandy coloured hair| Â  | Â  | Long eye lashes| Â  | Â  | Large Feet| Â  | Â  | Sharp teeth| Â  | Â  | Layer of blubber| Â  | Â  | Adaptations in Plants Plants also have adaptations that help them survive better in their environment. Marram grass is a good example of a plant which is adapted to live in very dry conditions, for example on sand dune systems. The leaves of the marram grass are adapted to survive with the limited water available in the desert. Read also Lab 2 BiologyIn very dry conditions, the leaves of the marram grass roll up to form long tubes. This helps drain any water down towards the roots of the plant. Match the adaptations of the marram grass leaves with their function Waxy CuticleReduce water loss through transpiration Stomata sunk in pitsTrap a layer of moist air close to the leaf surface Leaf HairsProtects the stomata from the wind, reducing water loss through evaporation Rolled LeafReduces water loss through evaporation

The Ascetic Ideal and the Slave Revolt in Morality

There are many aspects in sociology, as well as in psychology, which helps individuals better understand how the frameworks for what is now accepted behavior and moral guides were established and created by the past, and by whom. One of the important aspects of this discussion involves the ascetic ideals, ressentiment, the nobles and the slaves, the slave morality and the slave revolt in morality. In this aspect, one of the most respected individuals who provided important insight for the discussion of this topic is Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche was a very popular German philosopher who devoted much of his professional time and career being involved in the discussion involving important aspects of morality and the noble and slave relationship, as well as the ascetic ideals and how it eventually affected the aforementioned aspects. There are those who criticized what Nietzsche has put forward, particularly the ideas he discussed involving the ideas of morality, how it is defined and how this controls humans through the close inspection of one's self and through the direction of the accusing finger from outwards to inwards. Nietzsche's ideas on the topic of slave revolt in morality carefully analysed by some; while others merely dispose it as something that does not fit the agreeable and convenient and comfortable understanding of the modern individual about the important aspects of morality and how the individual in his social position should be ascribed with his own set of attributes for this particular aspect. â€Å"Nietzsche's unintended contributions to the moralization of the decadence are most obviously displayed in the Genealogy, a book in which he both documents and exemplifies the twisted psychology of the slave revolt in morality (Conway, 2002, p. 31). † Nonetheless, what Nietzsche had said about this topic has earned its rightful significance. Because of that, the further discussion of this topic is a significant endeavor to further clarify the ideas presented in this aspect. What is the Ascetic Ideal? The ascetic ideal can be taken differently, depending on the person's outlook. It c an be something grand that it can be life altering in the sense that one's outlook in life may seriously change and the ascetic ideal showing that it can be powerful enough to provide someone with a significant life goal worth pursuing. While, on the other hand, it can be as insignificant as being plainly nothing more than a tool used by individuals and groups who, like the group they are trying to usurp, merely wanted control over the people by creating something from which control of the people can be possible. Nietzsche provided an explanation on the meaning of the ascetic ideals and the differences of the meanings of the ascetic ideals, depending on the type of person the ascetic ideal will be applied to. He explained that the target individuals who will be affected by the ascetic ideals include artists, philosophers, priests and scholars, as well as women and those which Nietzsche described as someone who is â€Å"physiologically failed. † In common present term, physiologically failed is someone who is not physically capable to be superior against other people or against the ruling class, or someone who is not equipped physically with the power to fight against or even resist physically the attack on one's self by the members of the higher status quo or higher social echelon (Nietzsche, 1998, p. 67). For each one of them, ascetic ideal mean something different, but largely something that can make them feel better about themselves by allowing the ability to create a condition inside one's mind. The individual has the ability to fight the superior class or render victorious in its socio-political and socio-moral fight versus the ruling/noble class; often, the ascetic ideal falls to the idea that it is relegated to the mental or even spiritual state (Nietzsche, 1998, p. 67) of the individual where it resides and it is at its peak efficacy. What Role does it play in the Slave Revolt in Morality? The ascetic ideal plays an important role in the slave revolt morality because the ascetic ideal is the driving force behind the creation of the slave revolt in morality. Without the ascetic ideal to empower particular groups of people (particularly the leader in the form of the ascetic priests who was considered as responsible for reforming and re-evaluating morality and the definition of good and bad / good and evil in the society), the people, who follow these leaders (ascetic priests), would have not known the ideals, believes and set of behaviors that allowed for and at the same time a result of the slave revolt in morality. The ascetic ideal, as explained earlier in the paper, influences different kinds of individuals and as an ideal is appreciated, exercised and consumed differently by different types of people. Nonetheless, these differences do not make the individuals feel the impact of the ascetic ideals differently through its manifestation and role in the slave revolt in morality. Although it is evident that in the analysis of the slave revolt in morality, often, the target of discussion is zeroed in on the ascetic ideals of the priests. In turn, the important role of the ascetic ideal of priests in the slave revolt in morality above the other types of ascetic ideals and the other individuals are affected and involved in this socio-cultural psychological and emotional revolution impacting the morality, behavior and social senses of the self and the relationship with other people (Craig, 1998, p. 854). It is important to point out that in the battle for the creation of what should be the accepted morality by the people, the tug of war pitted the noble/soldiers versus the priests and the peaceful (Craig, 1998, p. 54). â€Å"To explain the origin of the good/evil [the specifically moral] mode of valuation, Nietzsche postulates a slave revolt in morality, a revaluation inspired by ressentiment [or]†¦ grudge-laden resentment (Craig, 1998, p. 854). † This happened because between the two lies what can be considered as irreconcilable differences in the idea of morality and is significant in the creation of what is known as slave revolt in morality (Schacht, 1994, p. 327). Even with the power in the society exercised by the nobles/soldier caste – the â€Å"ressentiment constitutive of slave moralities [which] were initially provided by the nobles (Schacht, 1994, p. 327). † The priests, at the onset of the rise of the socio-political power of religions like Judaism and Christianity, are, nonetheless, not fully rendered incapable and incapacitated by the noble/soldier caste. Brian Leiter (2002) noted about the fact that present then and now what is known as â€Å"the cunning of the priestly caste even within noble societies (Leiter, 2002, p. 86). † This is important because as what critics and analysts points out, the ideals of ascetics, despite the fact that it targets and hits different kinds of persons, its most prominent figure is the ascetic ideal upon the priest (now ascetic priest), to whom the movement of the ascetic ideals (and its role in the slave revolt in morality) is largely and significantly hinged (Conway, 2002, p. 13 1). â€Å"Throughout his account of the genesis and ascendancy of the ascetic ideal, he unwittingly presents himself as a Doppelganger of the ascetic priest (Conway, 2002, p. 31). † The ascetic ideal's role in the slave revolt in morality is that it allowed slave revolt in morality to happen and to be more easily and/or conveniently embraced by a particular group of people (Conway, 2002, p. 131). To be able to truly identify the role of the ascetic ideal in the slave revolt in morality, it is important to point out the creation of ascetic ideal and how the ascetic ideal influenced or have had a role in the slave revolt in morality. There is first the feeling of ressentiment of the slaves which created the idea of morality – the entry of asceticism ideals that helped explain the slave morality to the people and helped them understand the mental/spiritual and emotional aspects of the relationship of the noble/slaves in the society during that time and how the ascetic ideals, in the end, helped the different types of people to understand the angles on existentialism that they needed to embrace and understand for the slave revolt to be realized and be made possible in the first place (Leiter, 2002, p. 286). The resentment of slaves and the internalized cruelty of civilized humans may have laid the foundation for morality, but it was the ability of asceticism to resolve the existential dilemma that ultimately accounted for the success of the slave revolt and the transformation of bad conscience into guilt (Leiter, 2002, p. 286). † More so, the role of ascetic ideal (and particularly, the ascetic priest) , is highlighted in the slave revolt in morality because the role of the ascetic priests was very significant in the salve revolt in morality taking place in the first place. It was because of the ascetic ideals among priests, who believe that the power of the combative soldiers and power all in all (as they see it among the ruling class nobles and soldiers), should be something that should be abhorred, ergo resulting in the slave revolt in morality. In the end, it was the priests, who was powered by the ascetic ideals, that was believed to be the leader behind the movement of the slave revolt in morality, and not the slaves as the name may imply (Craig, 1998, p. 54). â€Å"His postulated slave revolt was led not by slaves but by priests (Craig, 1998, p. 854). † Conclusion Despite what Nietzsche had said about the idea of morality and the feeling of the ascetic priests and how this contributed to the shaping of modern day attitude directed towards the religious institutions and the aristocratic and/or ruling and influential echelon side by side one another, what is clear is that this aspect is something that is still very much debatable. There are still many corners in this topic that hasn't reached a full closure regarding the loose ends that came about after the problems springing up based from what Nietzsche postulated from his works. â€Å"Our concepts need clarification precisely because they are products of a complicated historical development. Different strands have been tied together into such a tight unity that they seem inseparable and are no longer visible as strands (Craig, 1998, p. 854). † Still, it will always be educational to constantly pry open this issue that will never close. More so, with the fact that just like in the past, the position of the ruling class, the position of the religious and the noble groups and the outlook of the society may still change. This change may still affect, how the ascetic ideals and the slave revolt in morality, is viewed in the future. What is clear is that in one way or another the ascetic ideal has gained foothold among many individuals and groups in the society; later on, it has managed to become a significant influence in the slave revolt in morality.

The Four Different ResearchTheories & Differences and Similarities Assignment

The Four Different ResearchTheories & Differences and Similarities between theory and hypothesis - Assignment Example In the process of criminal research there are many things to consider in teaching people on criminal justice research. However, to be able to understand the plan in construction new crime prevention strategy city wide there are major points that require to be discussed. The main points that will be tackled for educational information will include definition of theories of inductive, deductive, axiomatic as well as grounded research theories (Ireland, Berg & Mutchnick, 2010). In addition, looking at all these theories, one can be considered to be more valid than the rest. There are a number of theories introduced in the criminal justice system and they all have differences and similarities that that make them separate entities in the field of criminal justice. Knowing the theories is one main point but being able to define the variables and their importance as theoretical schemes components is crucial to providing learning information to police captains. Key Differences between the Research Theories In this section, a generalization of the four theories will be given to gain a basic understanding of each one. Deductive reasoning takes general information and gives it a particular instance. An example of this kind of reasoning can be dogs sleep twelve hours a day. Understanding that this may be true for one dog, it can be concluded that that is also true for all dogs based on the fact that they have the same biology. Inductive reasoning involves taking well detailed facts and applying them to general principles. An example could be that all cows are spotted. Another example could be that every day the sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. It can be said to be a simplified version of facts such as location, speed and viewpoints (Ireland, Berg & Mutchnick, 2010).... Deductive reasoning takes general information and gives it a particular instance. An example of this kind of reasoning can be dogs sleep twelve hours a day. Understanding that this may be true for one dog, it can be concluded that that is also true for all dogs based on the fact that they have the same biology. Inductive reasoning involves taking well detailed facts and applying them to general principles. An example could be that all cows are spotted. Another example could be that every day the sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. It can be said to be a simplified version of facts such as location, speed and viewpoints (Ireland, Berg & Mutchnick, 2010). Grounded theory is a methodology that is systematic involving coming up with a theory from data that is gathered and available. It is mainly used when doing qualitative research, even though it can be applicable for quantitative data. In other words it is the scientific method that has been reversed. One starts by collec ting data in a variety of ways first then from the data gathered a hypothesis is proposed. Using the axiomatic research theory, the system is made up of any set of axioms or postulate in coming up with a proposition that has not been demonstrated or proven but is considered to be self evident or is known to be true without any proof. From this all or some of the axioms can be used together to come up with logically derived theorems. In other words the data is taken to be factual without having to necessarily prove it (Hagan, 2009). Which theory is more valid? Looking at the four theories the grounded theory can be considered to be more valid based on the methodology it uses. Its apparent ability to come up with theories by use of an inductive approach has put it forward as very relevant

MARTIN LUTHER Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

MARTIN LUTHER - Essay Example After being excommunicated from the Catholic Church, he stated the protestant movement which led to protestant churches throughout the globe. This paper attempts to describe Martin Luther and his contribution to reforms that led to protestant churches. Prior to his engagement in reforms Luther served as a philosophy student at University of Erfurt and became a professor in 1508 after having been ordained as a priest in 1507. He further engaged in higher studies of theology and in 1517 he opposed what he discovered as hypocrisy of priests in the Catholic Church (Somervill 27).Through expanded study and research of theology and understanding of the bible, Luther came to realize that Christians should not be deceived by church leaders that they can buy salvation or forgiveness of sins. His idea of justification of faith came from the bible and knowledge based on his theological study and he justified the fact that salvation was given by God through His grace that led to faith in Jesus Christ (Hendrix 56). His original idea on Christianity was not compatible with the church theology because the church theology involved deceptive gospel. He was opposed to such issues like teaching people that their deeds could earn them eternal life. The church theology was also based on the authority of the pope and he challenged this authority by claiming that the only divine source of knowledge was the Bible and was given by God (Bainton 47). Martin Luther started the protestant reformation after being irritated by the sale of indulgences within the Catholic Church and confronted Johann Tetzel who was a salesman with ninety five theses. He posted the theses at the main door of Castle Church based in Wittenburg and theses contained such issues like the hypocrisy of church leaders especially concerning the sale of indulgences to the masses. He was later asked to retract his writings by the Pope and Holy Roman Empire where he refused and was excommunicated from the

Obesity in UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Obesity in UK - Essay Example (Obesity Focused (2001) According to the obesity society, an estimated 200 million adults and 18 million under the age of five were obese in 1995. It also estimates that over 300 million individuals are currently obese in the world (WHO, 2004). In the United Kingdom, about 46% of men and 32% of women are overweight (with a BMI of 25-30) while an amazing 17% of men and 21% of women are obese. It also reports that, in the developing world alone, currently more than 115 million individuals are obese. Obesity is majorly attributed to poor eating habits, unchecked lifestyles, insufficient sleep, smoking, use of medication, pregnancy, family history, among other factors. Its health risks cannot be undermined as it causes a wide range of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, stroke, cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancers. Other risks include mechanical disabilities like varicose veins, metabolic disorders like Gall stones, and even decreased life expectancy. It is also likely to cause a number of psychological and social problems within an individual. For example, an obese person may suffer from low self esteem since people normally perceive obesity as unattractiveness. The hospitality industry is a diverse global industry with a wide range of service industries. These include the hotel industry, the food service industry, and tourism. Obesity is mainly blamed on the overall lifestyle of an individual. The hospitality industry mainly is concerned with the improving the living standard of individuals. Therefore, it is prudent to claim that the hospitality industry, through mainly the food, hotel and the beverages industry, may be a contributing factor to obesity in an individual. According to Marlene B. of the Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity, obesity is majorly associated with unhealthy eating and low levels of physical activity. "She claims that the increase in obesity in the United Kingdom can be blamed to the numbers of "quick service restaurants" which have sprung up in the urban centers and which cook foods which have high saturated fat and high sugar content. She also notes that the youth are the ones who are majorly affected by this trend as the restaurants mostly carter for the youth. (Obesity focus, 2004) Research by Yale University professor Kelly Brownell showed that fast food did contribute significantly to the amount of calorie taken in a day thereby increasing the risk for obesity. The food industry's major shift to provision of high energy-dense foods that are high in fat and sugars but low in vitamins and minerals can also be blamed for the increased cases of obesity. This has led to energy imbalance as the calories consumed are not used hence they accumulate as fat. The industry is also blamed for not providing sufficient information about the contents of foods they provide to the public. A group of obesity activists in the United Kingdom is claiming that the menu should be labeled with information that would help individuals control their choices of food, thereby enabling them to limit or avoid those foods that would increase the chances of them being obese. This they propose, is to be done by making it mandatory for restaurants to include in their menus a data showing the ca lorie count of respective foods. They claim that this would enlighten consumers as they order meals. Most people in the society do not understand effects of the foods

Critical analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical analysis - Essay Example Nevertheless, the real issue at hand is the motive behind taking the image. Clearly, there is a voyeuristic element with the way the images are being represented through the lens. It can be observed how the acts are conforming to the intended obscenity, the poor lighting, and the predating conditions before Yoshiyuki’s encounter with the couples. No one could honestly testify the real intent behind the scopophilia but judging from a critic’s point of view, there seems to be no cooperation between Yoshiyuki and the group of people. In the context of photography, while Yoshiyuki did not anticipate the happenstance, the drive that sticks him with the ongoing public demonstration could be related to personal photography, wherein he intended to seize the image for personal use (Wells 56); â€Å"here is a person making choices, not a stationary camera recording what passes before it (â€Å"Gefter, Sex in the Park, and Its Sneaky Spectators†). The photo also suggests o f his nature as a photographer: a voyeur. Although, he vehemently disagreed that he is one. He asserts that â€Å"My intention was to capture what happened in the parks, so I was not a real ‘voyeur’ like them† (Gefter, â€Å"Sex in the Park, and Its Sneaky Spectators†). ... As a matter of fact, the â€Å"curator of photography at the Museum of Modern Art, agrees that Yoshiyuki’s work falls into a photographic tradition† (Gefter, â€Å"Sex in the Park, and Its Sneaky Spectators†). In the past and maybe until today, â€Å"aesthetic and subject matter of the photograph was considered as only of secondary importance† (49); what is more important is the image itself. Looking at the photo, it is rather conspicuous that no artistic impression was intended; considering the ephemerality of such activity, the motive behind the photo is the image alone – an idea that conforms to personal photography – in which the practitioner was more concerned of capturing the image rather than understanding its significance. Indeed, obscenity does not entail good standing; hence, this has been discounted in the process, perhaps, due to the voyeuristic purpose of the photograph. As mentioned earlier, it can be argued that obscenity does not entail good standing. If this is so, what was the real motive of the practitioner? Voyeurism and scopophilia can be very subjective oftentimes and so Yoshiyuki, as he proclaimed himself a voyeur, points towards what he can take out of the â€Å"perfect† encounter; although, the picture expresses manifold significance in the society. The picture somehow signifies the employment of nudity as an indicator of certain types of prejudice in that body is essential to "colonial modes of power, including the processes of representation" (84). The picture relatively depicts a social stratification in the Japanese civilization, in which women are significantly controlled by the men. Photography, in history, took part in the employment of modernist thinking that criticizes â€Å"high and low cultures†, which are

Reasons why Immigrants Fail to Learn English Essay

Reasons why Immigrants Fail to Learn English - Essay Example Some take shorter time to understand than others, while others really have a hard time even grasping basic terminologies. From the onset, it is the teacher who initiates all communication and this can be a very frustrating experience. Obviously, at the start not all the students have equal mastery over the English language. Some will take a bit longer to grasp the introductory advances. To this effect, new teachers are usually barely well – equipped to handle multi – cultural students at once. No matter how many languages the teachers know and speak, there is always the chance that some student will come in whose language the teacher has not grasped. Furthermore, most teachers invest in learning mainstream foreign languages only e.g. French, German and Spanish. So when a Hindu speaking student joins the class for example, the teacher has to reanalyze his / her initial approach to teaching. Even after the basic salutations and pleasantries have been mastered by the stude nts, the accent issue still dominates the learning environment. In some instances the teacher has to repeat the words severally before the students can grasp the pronunciation. Another problem that teachers encounter is dealing with the students’ varying motivation during the lessons. Naturally, the students will have enrolled due to different ambitions. While some undergo the lessons as a compulsory requirement, others enroll just for the sake of familiarizing themselves with a foreign language (in this case, English). In such a scenario, not all students will have the same level of motivation as the lesson proceeds. Shifting focus to the immigrants, most of them portray some reluctance to apply themselves to the learning process when they encounter the initial difficulty in familiarizing with the English language. One would notice some subtle resistance to learning the language. Then again there is the erosion of English in the United States. Dominance of slang confuses the foreign students. In the classroom, the students are taught one thing. When they step out into the street, they hear something entirely different. At some point the students will be bound to get disillusioned. With the language itself, English has very many idioms and other figurative styles of language. Expecting the students to apply and relate to such linguistic features when they are barely grasping the basic language is an uphill task. English literature has a heavy influence in the curriculum and therefore students are expected to familiarize themselves with hundreds of classic literary pieces during learning. They end up complicating matters and students have a hard time registering what they are taught. A student would find it hard to grasp the aspect of symbolism when he / she can barely distinguish between tenses. Rules of exception also act as obstacles to the learning process too. Foreign students take time to establish syntax, sentence structure and word order. Regiona l dialects in the United States also heavily affect the student’s mastery of the language. For instance, a student living in a Latino neighborhood will be affected by the dialect spoken in that area. Some immigrant students have a phobia for resident students because they feel inferior when their English is not as polished as their hosts. Chapter 2 Immigrants

ORIGINS OF THE AMERICAN 'REVOLUTION' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

ORIGINS OF THE AMERICAN 'REVOLUTION' - Essay Example For this cause, the American Revolutionary War took place in 1775 and ended in 1783. It was also called by the name of the American War of Independence. â€Å"The war was the completion stage of the political American Revolution whereas the colonists had denied the rights of the Parliament of Great Britain in governing them without any representation. In 1775, revolutionaries had gained control of the thirteen colonial governments.† ("The American Revolutionary War") However, this revolutionary war somehow ended up in a global war where many nations and a few European giants fought against each other. Hence to sum it up, â€Å"The American Revolution ended two centuries of British rule for most of the North American colonies and created the modern United States of America. The Revolutionary era was both exhilarating and disturbing---a time of progress for some, dislocation for others.† ("The American Revolution") THE CONVENTIONAL VIEW OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION â€Å"T he significance of this point is that it contradicts a conventional view of American civilization as something transplanted more or less whole from across the Atlantic- ‘the providential history’ of the United States.† (Schultz, 572). ... It was now believed that those who were in power did not have any idea about the intensity of the situation and thus failed to comprehend and take charge resulting in a major setback for the British. The reason behind this uncertainty is considered to be the lack of faith which the British had in themselves. They were still doubtful whether they could win this battle or not. â€Å"Britain's  policy drove them toward a closer union with one another and finally  provoked  armed resistance.† (Murrin, 182) One should not forget that the British were in a far better position as compared to the Americans who neither had an army, navy or any experience in war. They were raw people who did not have the experience but their courage, valor and patriotism distinguished them and made them a major threat against the all powerful British. A term â€Å"spirit of 76† is commonly referred for all Americans for the bravery and love for land they executed throughout the war which la sted for almost eight years. They not only served their land but suffered terribly as well but despite all the hardships and brutality they faced, the Americans had the urge to emerge and bring about a change for the sake of their future generations. Thus the unjust rules and political dictatorship that was demonstrated by the British helped united a nation on a consolidated platform. It was the first time in the history that people vowed together against the unjust and rose for the sake of acquiring their basic international principles which are similar for all humans irrespective of cast, creed or culture such as constitutional rights, power and freedom. The oppression that was faced by the Americans and the way they were deprived from their rights and moreover their identity acted as a game changer for

Childbirth and Preterm Infants Essay Example for Free

Childbirth and Preterm Infants Essay Discuss disparities related to ethnic and cultural groups relative to low birth weight infants and preterm births. Describe the impact of extremely low birth weight babies on family and society (short and long term, including economic considerations, ongoing care considerations, and co-morbidities associated with prematurity). Discuss whether you feel that support services and systems in your community for preterm infants and their families adequately address their needs or not. Explain your answer. Respond to other learners posts in a manner that initiates or contributes to discussion. Racial and ethnic disparities in health disproportionately affect minority Americans. One of the greatest challenges facing the US healthcare system is the persistence of disparities in infant and maternal health among the different racial and ethnic groups. This disparity in healthcare outcomes does not appear to be limited to the Black community only, but rather it seems to affect all minority groups. In this context, American Indian/Alaska Native infants have higher death rates than White infants because of higher SIDS rates. The exact cause of these persisting racial disparities remains unexplained. The differences in socioeconomic status, maternal risky behaviors, prenatal care, psychosocial stress, and perinatal infection account for more disparities. Hispanics of Puerto Rican origin have higher IMRs than White infants because of higher LBW rates. One major risk factor for preterm birth is maternal genital infection. Others include extremes of maternal age, maternal cigarette smoking and substance abuse, history of PTD and maternal medical conditions such as hypertension and diabetes. There are support services and CHC’s available in our area for minority group women, preterm infants and their families to address their needs.

The History And Background Of Positivism Philosophy Essay

The History And Background Of Positivism Philosophy Essay French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798 ~ 1857) has been known as the father of modern discipline of sociology and founder of positivism theory. Even though his popularity has seen a declining trend in the past several decades, nevertheless he was very popular until the beginning of 20th century. His thought was so popular that the Latin American country, such as Brazil and Mexico made Comtes thought as their national motto. The Brazilians are still proud of Ordem e Progresso (Order and Progress) embossed on their national flag. The followers of Comte were equally active in England, America, Turkey and other parts of the world. Comtes views on the concept of positivism have been explained in his book The  Course on Positive Philosophy  (1830-1842) which spreads over six volumes. The original French has been translated by Harriet Martineau into English which is titled as  The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte. The first three volumes of the Course primarily deals with already existing physical sciences, like mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology and the next two volumes in succession explains about social science, as the next logical science after the physical sciences. He observed the phenomena of circular dependency between theory and observation in physical sciences which helped him to reach to the conclusion that the science of society is no different from other natural sciences. Comtes View on Evolution of Humanity One of the most important pillar on which the positivism philosophy stands is the general law of the three stages. By advocating the law of the three stages, Comte explains that, in its quest for truth the society passes through three successive evolution phases. Here Comtes idea has striking similarity with Karl Marxs view of a human society peaking with a utopian socialistic class-less society. However, it is not surprising as both Marx and Comte were highly influenced by the famous utopian sociologist of the time, Henri de Saint Simon, who was also the mentor of Comte for some time. The law of three stages states that in the natural process of evolution of the society, the humanity goes through three stages: the theological, the metaphysical and the positive. The theological stage is the necessary starting point in the evolution process of mankind, whereas the positive state is the natural stage where humanity ought to be and the intermediary metaphysical stage is a transitory phase necessary for the transition from the first to the third stage. In the theological stage, the human society was completed based on divine ideas and humanitys whole hearted belief in all things in reference to the God. During this stage, instead of relying on its rational ability to seek truth behind human existence, the humanity completely accepted the principles of the place of worship. In terms of material development of humanity, this stage corresponds to the rise of militarism. During the metaphysical stage of human evolution, in its quest for the causes of natural phenomena, humanity explained them as the result of the supernatural interventions and abstract entities. According to Comte, this stage corresponds to the time since the Enlightenment till the aftermath of French Revolution and the most important feature of this period is respect for the universal rights of humanity. He believed that there are certain rights inherent to humanity which must be respected. This is the phase when various forms of governances rose and fell, all with the primary of objective of safeguarding the rights inherent to humanity. The natural process of human evolution culminates with the scientific or the positive stage when human mind no longer seek the causes for various natural phenomena, instead it limit itself to various scientific laws governing them. The primary belief of this stage is that individual rights are the supreme and humanitys ability to govern itself in its free will is what makes this stage different from other stages. According to Comte, these three stages are the fundamental rules upon which the society and its development are based. All the three stages must be completed in successive manner and without the complete understanding of the former; the later cant just come into existence. According to Comte, understanding the past is very critical because only through the thorough understanding of the past the future could be built and the transition from proceeding stage to the next one would be possible. So the concept of continuous progression or social evolution was the main theme of the concept of positivism. Further, he believes that the history of one science is of no use unless it is used for the study of the development of humanity as whole. So in nutshell the social evolution theory presented by Comte is of the opinion that humanity passes through different stages through which it acquires intellectual advancements and the whole process culminates with the positive or the scientific stage. However, Comtes social evolution theory is flawed due to one basic reason. That is the final positivist stage assumes attainment of complete understanding about the universe by the humanity which is impossible in reality. Because humanity continues using the existing scien tific knowledge to know more and more and the process never ends. In that sense, humanity can never attain the so called positivist stage when there is nothing left for the humanity to know. Comtes View of the Classification of Sciences Apart from the three stages of social evolution of humanity, the 2nd most important pillar on which the theory of positivism rests on is the classification of sciences. In the first three volumes of The Course on Positive Philosophy, Comte has thoroughly examined the five fundamental sciences mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology and has classified in that sequence. Comte is of the view that each discipline is closely related to the preceding one and the complete development of the former gives birth to the later. After the complete development of the natural sciences, then came the queen science, which is Sociology. He has dedicated the remaining two volumes of the Course to sociology, which according to Comte is the culmination of all sciences. The natural sciences had to come first, so that humanity could use the knowledge of other sciences toward the most complex science of sociology. The classification of the sciences has been done in a manner of shifting from simplicity toward complexity. Mathematics is the simplest among all the sciences, in the sense that it is objective oriented with absence of subjectivity and at the extreme end there is sociology, which is highly subjective making it the most complex. Moreover, if we look at the historical aspect of the development of these disciplines, astronomy requires mathematics, similarly chemistry requires physics. In other words, development of each science requires the knowledge of the preceding discipline and the full-fledged development of the former leads to the development of the later. However, according to Comte, other branches of science, like zoology, botany, etc. are simply not science because they are yet to develop completely to be called as science. As Peter Halfpenny says in his book, Positivism and Sociology à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦positivism is a unity of science thesis, according to which all sciences can be integrated into a single natural system.  [3]  Not to mention that among the various classifications of sciences proposed till date, the classification as advocated by Comte is still very popular all over the world. Comte was not the first individual to think about the scientific study of social phenomena. He was highly influenced by the ideas devised by Hume, Kant and his mentor Saint-Simon for new philosophy of positivism. However, there is no doubt that Comte broadens and systematized the study of sociology to great extent. The Social Physics as he called it first, sociology was divided into two main areas, social statistics and social dynamics. While the first branch concerns about the forces keeping the society together, the later mainly concentrates on causal aspect of social changes. In his later career, when he was criticized by scholars like J.S. Mill as the bad Comte (in contrast to the good Comte during his first phase of his career), came up with the idea of ideal positivist society based on altruistic ideals in his System of Positive Polity. He established Religion of Humanity with the intellectual sociologists as its priests. He was of the opinion that in the industrially developed positivist society, the actual administration would be in the hands of businessmen, the sociologists would be guide and model of public morality and finally the women would be entrusted with the task of maintaining private morality. He has been severely criticised for going against his law of three stages, by moving towards a theological ideology by establishing a new religion. Moreover, his support of elite administration and indifference towards democratic set-up, etc. are also target of criticism. Nevertheless, Comtes view of sociology as the study of human society and positivist methodology of social research still remains his remarkable contribution. As Frederic Harrison commented in his 1901 article that Positivism at once a philosophy, a polity and a religion all three harmonized by the idea of a supreme Humanity, all three concentrated on the good and progress of Humanity.  [4]  In fact positivism is perhaps the only philosophy ever came with a complete set of principl es concerning social reorganization and religious observance. Post-Comte Positivism Comtes positivist philosophy became popular with the foundation of The Positivist Review by Emile Littre in 1867. The Whig writer Harriet Martineau translated many of Comtes works into English, after which English followers of positivism increased. While George Elliot appreciated Comtes Religion of Humanity, Spencer was highly influenced by the positivist idea of to formulate his social Darwinistic philosophy. French social scientist Emile Durkheim, even though critical of many of Comtes positivist principles, his methodology to study sociology has its origin in Comtes positivism. Durkheim and Positivism Establishment of sociology as an independent branch of knowledge and academic discipline is the most important contribution of French social scientist Emile Durkheim. He is credited with establishment of first Department of Sociology in the University of Bordeaux in 1895. Though he rejected much of the ideas of Comtes positivism, he completely accepted that sociology is the continuation of the natural sciences and its study must be based on objectivity, causality and rationality. In his The Rules of Sociological Methods published in French in 1895, he clearly indicated two principles for sociology to be called as a science. Firstly, it must concern about a particular object of study (social facts) and secondly, an objective scientific method must be used for the study without prejudice and subjective judgment.  [5]  In his book Suicide (1897) Durkheim attempted to prove that Catholic Christians have a lower suicide rate than the Protestants, through collection of social facts, su ch as suicide rate and membership of different religious faiths and their statistical treatment. Collection of social facts, according to Durkheim is the fundamental objective of sociology. He believed Comtes scientific approach is not suitable to study human society, instead he felt the need for a different sociological scientific approach, for which he developed the concept of sui generis or the social facts to study the suicide trend based on cultural aspect. About the question of objectivity of the sociologist, he believed observation must be impartial and impersonal and hence social facts must be studied in relation to other social facts instead of in relation to the observer. Durkheims positivism has been criticised for oversimplification, because he refuted the Comteian idea of applying same scientific approach to study both natural as well as social sciences. Nevertheless, Durkheim is the founder of practical sociological research in its modern sense as we know it today. Anti-positivism In the beginning of the 20th century German sociologists started the concept of anti-positivist, which was of the opinion that social sciences and natural sciences are essentially different from each other epistemologically and hence the approach to study natural sciences cannot be applied to social sciences. On contrary to the Comteian objective approach, they proposed a subjective approach in order to study social phenomena. It was of the opinion that social scientists must reject the empiricism and scientific methodology in order to study sociology. This view was further developed by Max Weber who for the first time used the term anti-positivism. He subscribed to the positivist idea of sociology being called as a science because it confirms to the principle of causal relationship. However, he believed that society, being different from the natural world, must be studied using special tools and methods concentrating on humans and their cultural values and proposed critical analysis and verstehen methodology in order to study sociology. Karl Marxs theory of historical materialism and critical sociology, which was actually based on positivism, further boosts the anti-positivism movement. Logical Positivism Logical positivism, also known as neo-positivism or logical empiricism, is another philosophy with its origin in the Comteian positivism and it accepted empiricism or evidence from observation as indispensable in order to study social phenomena. But it also felt the need of a rational approach, because observation if not the only source of human knowledge. Logical positivism grew before the 1st World War by the members of the First Vienna Circle presided by Moritz Schlick. Logical positivists emphasized on public experimental verification rather than individual experience and completely refuted the idea of metaphysics, as it is not empirically verifiable, hence meaningless and believed that all worthwhile knowledge about the world must be codifiable in a single language common to all the sciences. The logical positivists idea of a codifiable single language came from Austrian- British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, which advocated for a strong criterion of verifiability, was later criticised by Karl Popper, who proposed to replace the same with the criterion of falsifiability. Criticism of Positivism The positivism as conceived by Comte was criticized on several grounds. First, Comtes viewed the positivist stage as the ultimate stage of human knowledge and once achieved, it will continue to be that. However, he could not foresee that scientific knowledge will lead to further growth in scientific knowledge, inventions and discoveries and in that sense humanity may never achieved that ultimate positivist stage at all. In fact, H. B. Acton goes on to the extent of saying the possibility of a Fourth Stage of human knowledge.  [6]  Similarly Anthony Giddens observed Comtes theory as circular that since humanity constantly uses science to bring new things, so humanity never goes beyond the second metaphysical stage.  [7]   Moreover, positivism has been criticised by several philosophers on the grounds of its practicality, methodology and religious aspects. Max Horkheimer, the Frankfort School director, criticised positivism, firstly it falsely represented human social action and secondly positivism being politically conservative proving as a hindrance towards political emancipation of humanity. The first criticism argues that, positivism ignored the role of the observer in the context of social reality and thereby ignores the truth that the so called social facts are in fact conditioned by social and historical realities. The representation of social facts is already determined by social and historical human consciousness. Secondly, he argued that political conservatism actually lead to status quo instead of challenging it. Horkheimer instead proposed critical theory which is reflexive in nature to understand about the extent of social reality represented by traditional positivistic philosophy as false .  [8]  Further, positivism has been criticised on philosophical grounds that it emphasized only on the sensory experiences or empiricism, but ignored the abstract ideas, laws and principles, which constitute a vital part of human knowledge. Nevertheless, positivism is still remains as an active concept in the present day. Comtes belief of sociology as the scientific study of human being is still accepted by all the modern sociologists.

Cultural Barriers to Effective Communication

Cultural Barriers to Effective Communication People with diverse cultures are more than ever challenging when it comes to effective communication. Cultures vary with their ways of seeing hearing, interpreting the world, and thinking. Cultural differences can be depicting in a wide variety of behavior and beliefs that found in the daily living such as in the workplace. It often serves as a wall that makes it very in conducive for businesses to go about with their activities. Thus similar statement can perceive different meanings to group from varied cultures, despite of the same language that they talk. With this diverse languages and translation of statement has to be used to converse, the possible for misinterpreting or misunderstanding increases. Doing business in a global economy is a very typical in the multicultural workplace, whereas barriers to communication abound. There are other elements that confront people who are trying to exert effort with others of a various background. People coming from different parts of the country have a dissimilar foundations and upbringing orientation, and they may show emotions in a different way and exhibit different behaviors. This may implicate the barriers to cross-cultural communication and can impede the understanding of the individual’s point of view. According to the Putsch, R. W. (1985), language barrier prevent a communicants capacity to judge meanings of the intentions, reactions, and emotions and manage to create a condition of dependency on the person who rely the keys to the whole course of action- the interpreter. [1] It is the truth that efficient communication is the answer to success not only in personal but also to business relationships as well. Lack of proper communication among people, the message will not be in achieved with the desired interpretation. As Rampur, S. (2011) stated that cultural differences are always behind a reason why there is an existence of miscommunication between two people. A gap is already manifested between individuals with their respective different views and backgrounds as an effect of which the message to be perceived is not understood or misinterpreted.[2] Barriers of language are a very intricate thing, and communication among people talking diverse languages is hard as stated by Penn, S. She further explained that language is a method of looking at the shortcomings, and even expert interpreter can find it difficult to express multifaceted concepts and emotions, which can escort to misunderstandings. Often a time that when you always misunderstood by someone talking with your language, it is very hard to express the full meaning from a person with a diverse cultural background.[3] Most managers or clinical coordinator, when encountered with cultural variance, often have slight idea that the causal cause could be cultural, The Economist Intelligence Unit stated (2012). They are likely to imagine: ‘Why are you so distress? This is I usually act and people in my home office in no way get offend. What’s the matter with you?’ A manager has needs to be acquainted with the individual’s cultural background that powerfully influence the way they react.†[4] There are a lot of reasons why interpersonal interactions may be unsuccessful. Several communications, the message may not be established precisely the way the sender projected. It is, therefore, essential that the conversationalist seeks response to verify that their message is obviously perceived correctly. There are common barriers to effective communications in terms of Cultural perspective. Language Barriers, Hostile stereotypes, behavior differences, and emotional display are just the examples of common barriers to effective communication. With regards to language barriers, it has been observed that coming from different cultures may not be comfortable in communicating to other person because of unable to understand the accent nor the language that they possess. As for the hostile stereotypes, because of their negative perceptions towards certain circumstances, it might damage the relationship among people. Behavioral variances concerning employees of different cultures can roo t misinterpretations. In some values, looking someone in the eye while talking to you is measured rude, on the other hand in other cultures holding back from doing so is measured disrespectful. Cultural Norms and Patterns Cultural norms are the customary, pattern or model of a specific cultural, ethnic, race, social or religious group considers as classic. Cultural norms comprise behaviors, thoughts and customs, values, beliefs, institution and patterns of communication. We can study to collaborate and interact across cultural race as persons, clusters, and the social order. Frequently our own culture is imperceptible until it comes into commerce with another race. People are normally ethnocentric; they read other cultures within the outline of the understanding according to their personal view. [5] Effective communication with persons of diverse culture is expressly challenging. It takes furthermore awareness to overcome these shortcomings and converse efficiently across nations. Over the years, the world has experienced an alteration process in which it has convert a specific omnibus form of socially diverse cultures whether it is based on ethnicity, gender, age, race, physical abilities, religion, socio economic status or sexual orientation. Working with different cultures in their home aspect is more a substance of finesse, communication and diplomacy rather than the straight application of forcible power. Cultural study is all tackles of understanding one’s individual ethnic patterns and learning individual’s own cultural standards.[6] References Putsch, R. W. (1985). Cross cultural communication. The special case of interpreters in health care. The Journal of American Medical Association, 254 (23), 3344-3348. doi:10.1001/jama.1985.03360230076027. Rampur, S. (2011). Cultural barriers to effective communication. Health Promotion Agency. Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/cultural-barriers-to-effective-communication.html Penn, S. (2014). Cultural communication barriers in the workplace. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/cultural-communication-barriers-workplace-13888.htm Economist Intelligence Unit (2012). Retrieved from http://www.jku.at/zsp/content/e48784/e164612/Competing_across_borders.pdf Kiss, G. (2008).Tactics for removing cultural barriers: A practical approach to effective communication. 7(3), 425–433 Retrieved from http://www.konyvtar.zmne.hu/docs/Volume7/Issue3/pdf/03kiss.pdf [1]Putsch, R. W. (1985) Cross cultural communication. The special case of interpreters in health care. The Journal of American Medical Association, 254 (23),3344-3348. doi:10.1001/jama.1985.03360230076027. [2]Rampur, S. (2011) Cultural barriers to effective communication. Health Promotion Agency. Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/cultural-barriers-to-effective-communication.html [3]Penn, S. (2014) Cultural communication barriers in the workplace. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/cultural-communication-barriers-workplace-13888.html [4]Economist Intelligence Unit (2012) Retrieved from http://www.jku.at/zsp/content/e48784/e164612/Competing_across_borders.pdf [5]Kiss, G. (2008)Tactics for removing cultural barriers: A practical approach to effective communication. 7(3), 425–433 Retrieved from http://www.konyvtar.zmne.hu/docs/Volume7/Issue3/pdf/03kiss.pdf [6]Kiss, G. (2008)Tactics for removing cultural barriers: A practical approach to effective communication. 7(3), 425–433 Retrieved from http://www.konyvtar.zmne.hu/docs/Volume7/Issue3/pdf/03kiss.pdf